Television addiction Essay Example For Students

Television addiction Essay Addicted to TelevisionThe temptations that can disrupt human life are often caused by pure indulgences. That which we most desire may ultimately harm and destroy us. For example, no one has to drink alcohol. Realizing when a diversion has gotten out of control, such as alcohol, is one of the greatest challenges of life. These excessive cravings do not necessarily involve physical substances. Gambling can be compulsive, leading to great financial distress; sex can become obsessive, often altering a persons mentality and behavior. However, one activity is repeatedly over-looked. Most people admit to having a love-hate relationship with it. It is Americas most popular leisure past-time, the television. It is undeniably the medium that attracts the most American attention. Numerous studies have been conducted on the marvelous hold that the television has on its viewers. Percy Tannenbaum of the University of California at Berkeley has written: Among lifes more embarrassing moments have be en countless occasions when I am engaged in conversation in a room while a TV set is on, and I cannot for the life of me stop from periodically glancing over to the screen. This occurs not only in dull conversations but during reasonably interesting ones just as well. Is the television a means of innocent entertainment, or is it a medium that will lead to the unavoidable addiction and dependency?What is it about television that has such a hold on us? Scientists have been studying the effects of television for decades, usually focusing on whether or not there was a direct correlation between viewing violence and acting violent in real life. Less attention has been paid to the basic allure of the small screen, the actual medium instead of what can be viewed on its screen. Scientists who have studied television addiction have come to the conclusion that it is real and affects many Americans without there knowledge. Substance dependence can be characterized by criteria that include: spe nding a lot of time using the substance; using it more often than one intends; thinking about reducing use or making repeated efforts to reduce use; giving up important activities to use it; and exhibiting withdrawal symptoms after stopping use. It does not necessarily mean that those who watch television are immediately categorized as dependants; it is only for those that notice that they should not be watching, yet find themselves unable to reduce their viewing. What causes our profound interest in the television? The amount of time that people spend watching television is astonishing. The average individual will devote three hours a day to watch television. At this rate, a person who lives to be 75 would spend a total of nine years in front of the television. Based on polls taken in 1992 and 1999, two out of five adults and seven out of ten teenagers said they spend too much time in front of the television; roughly 10 percent of the adults called themselves television addicts. To study the physical and mental reactions to television, scientists have conducted experiments monitoring brain waves, skin resistance and the heart rate of people watching television. After analyzing the data, scientists discovered that people viewing television reported feeling relaxed and passive. More relaxed than while reading a book. Studies have also shown that the relaxation caused from watching ended once the television was turned-off, but the feelings of passivity and lowered alertness continued. Viewers reported having difficulty concentrating after viewing than before. After playing sports or engaging in hobbies, people repot improvements in mood. After watching television, people report that their moods are about the same or worse. One of the reasons that we are so attracted to the television is our orienting response. First described by Ivan Pavlov in 1927, the orienting response is our instinctive visual or auditory reaction to any sudden or novel stimulus. It is part of our evolutionary heritage, a built in sensitivity to movement and potential threats (Kubey 77). In 1986, Byron Reeves and his colleagues began their study on whether simple features of television cuts, edits, zooms, pans, sudden noised activate the orienting response, causing attention to be focused on the screen. 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Criticisms

and not reality. In this sense, Kant sees the Ontological argument as an exercise in verbal analysis, the means where anyone can anaylse the meaning of a word or concept, and draw a logical explanation from it. Therefore, Anselms’ word... Criticisms Free Essays on The Existence Of God - Approaches/Criticisms The existence of God - Approaches/Criticisms There are three major arguments that attempt to explain the existence of God. Firstly, it is important to establish a definition of God. According to philosophers God is an infinitely perfect being that upholds a divine unity of ultimate goodness and of ultimate power. God is referred to as Omniscient, Omnipotent and Eternal. God has unlimited knowledge and intelligence, so basically God is the ultimate model of perfectionism. Though all Philosophers agree with this definition of God, it does not state whether or not this ideal concept of God exists. The Ontological, Cosmological and Teleological have been developed throughout time to attempt to prove God existence. There have also been many criticisms into these arguments, which attempt to disprove each argument. The Ontological argument was developed by Anselm; a theist who argued for the existence of God. In his argument he refers to God as a perfect being, therefore ‘that than which nothing greater can be conceived’. He began his argument by saying that even a ‘fool’ (atheist) can grasp or understand the concept of a being than of ‘which nothing greater can be conceived’ as they already have an understanding or idea of what it means in their mind. Though this idea exists in their mind, it does not mean God doesn’t exist in reality. Anselm refers to God as a perfect being, and because he is so perfect he must have infinite perfectionism, therefore Anselm is arguing that if God lacked existence he would not be perfect, as he is perfect he must exist. There are many criticisms to why Anselm’s Ontological argument fails. Kant saw Anselm’s argument as merely a word game, playing on words and not reality. In this sense, Kant sees the Ontological argument as an exercise in verbal analysis, the means where anyone can anaylse the meaning of a word or concept, and draw a logical explanation from it. Therefore, Anselms’ word...

Procurement Methods Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Procurement Methods - Assignment Example In this project, the construction procurement techniques that will be talked about are the novated design and build methods, accelerated traditional methods and the construction management approach. Construction administration is as procurement course in which the works are built by various different foremen. These builders are contracted to the customer yet overseen by a development supervisor. The construction supervisor goes about as a specialist for the customer, controlling and facilitating the working contracts. The development administrator is by and large selected ahead of schedule in the outline change so their experience can be utilized to enhance the fabricate capacity and bundling of suggestions as they build. This can empower some exchange foremen to be delegated sooner than others, possibly shortening the time taken to finish the responsibility assigned. Then again, there will be the value instability until the configuration is finished and all agreement has been let. Accelerated traditional method is a system where a builder is selected prior in the arrangement of design on the premise of fractional data, either by transaction or in competition. Arrangement, from the premise of the starting, incomplete data, happens once the last outline data gets to be accessible. Development begins when the outline is created to the last stage (Bennett, 1990). Whilst this permits an early begin on location, it additionally involves less conviction about expense. In Accelerated traditional method, some outline covers development. It is accomplished by letting a different, advance works contract. For instance, by permitting foundations (site leeway, heaping and establishments) to continue to construct once arranging consent has been gotten keeping in mind the design for whatever remains of the building is finished, and by tendering over the ground development independently. This lessens the aggregate

Literacy narative Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Literacy narative - Essay Example WhÐ µn I was a littlÐ µ girl, my parÐ µnts would always rÐ µad to mÐ µ, and I lovÐ µd books. I was vÐ µry involvÐ µd in thÐ µ storiÐ µs, and I would rÐ µad along with my mothÐ µr and fathÐ µr, and also link all of thÐ µ picturÐ µs with thÐ µ tÐ µxt. It was a comforting fÐ µÃ µling. As I got oldÐ µr and thÐ µrÐ µ bÐ µcamÐ µ morÐ µ rulÐ µs, I slowly driftÐ µd from rÐ µading and writing, and bÐ µcamÐ µ morÐ µ intÐ µrÐ µstÐ µd in subjÐ µcts such as sciÐ µncÐ µ, math, and history. So, I fÐ µÃ µl likÐ µ I havÐ µ littlÐ µ Ð µxpÐ µriÐ µncÐ µ in writing, bÐ µcausÐ µ I havÐ µ lost intÐ µrÐ µst in it. All through high school, I had a prÐ µtty good idÐ µa of what I wantÐ µd to do in my futurÐ µ; which consists of many math and sciÐ µncÐ µ coursÐ µs. I want to gÐ µt a nursing dÐ µgrÐ µÃ µ, and thÐ µn gÐ µt into thÐ µ Physician’s Assistant Program. So, along my acadÐ µmic path, that is what I havÐ µ focusÐ µd on and Ð µxcà  µllÐ µd at, rathÐ µr than writing. BÐ µing a frÐ µshmÐ µn studÐ µnt at thÐ µ UnivÐ µrsity of Utah, I havÐ µ rÐ µalizÐ µd that writing is going to bÐ µ an immÐ µnsÐ µ part of collÐ µgÐ µ, and that communicating through writing will hÐ µlp mÐ µ to accomplish my goals. Writing skills will bÐ µ rÐ µquirÐ µd in probably two-thirds of thÐ µ classÐ µs I Ð µnroll in. To bÐ µ honÐ µst, I don't dÐ µspisÐ µ writing, and I think that I could lÐ µarn to lovÐ µ it, if I could bÐ µcomÐ µ a good writÐ µr.

Toward a Moral Economy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Toward a Moral Economy - Essay Example Moral norms as used here refer to the general statements or rules, such as always being truthful, while moral values are expressed as statements that describe features or objects as having worth (Velasquez, 2013). The focus of a moral economy, therefore, deals with achieving understanding of these practices and institutions, as well as on desirable and feasible possibilities for change. Judgments concerning the justice in society have their basis on moral principles that come up with fair ways for the distribution of economic burdens and benefits among all members of a specific society (Velasquez, 2013). In the same society, judgments concerning the violations of rights of its members revolve around moral principles that identify the aspects on which the individuals’ wellbeing and rights to freedom and liberty are respected by the authorities. The moral, economic society should also be guided by the utilitarian morality standard, which is a moral principle contending that various acts are right only to the extent that they increase the economic benefits to society, while also decreasing the economic costs to society. In addition, this moral economy must also possess an ethic of virtue, which refers to the ethic that places emphasis of ensuring the concrete wellbeing of other individuals in society, rather than only oneself (Velasquez, 2013). To evaluate the moral character of individuals in this moral economy, the ethic of virtue is used. Capitalist justice is based on the contribution of individuals in society and acts as a possible starting point for a moral economy. In this case, the benefits are distributed according to the individual’s contribution to society, raising the question about how distributive justice’s contributive principle can allow for the measurement of each individual’s contribution on the basis of work effort (Velasquez,

Recruitment And Selection From The Exchange Perspective

Recruitment And Selection From The Exchange Perspective Subsequent to the recruitment of a pool of applicants, organisations need to decide on which applicants to employ. Many organisations are realising the important contribution, effective selection practice can make, and in light of this, are utilising an assortment of methods to improve the successfulness of the entire recruitment and selection process. Validity and reliability are two important aspects that are considered fundamental when assessing the robustness of selection tools, particularly when viewed from the traditional psychometric perspective (Searle, 2003). All selection methods and tools are developed to measure and assess candidates appropriateness for the specified job role. The performance results of the candidate, are frequently used to make the decision, therefore it is imperative that these results are reliable and accurate. Validity concerns the appropriateness of what is being measured, whilst reliability focuses on its accuracy (Searle, 2003). Validity is generally identified in four ways including face, content, construct and criterion related validity. The form of the selection test is what concerns face validity. For example, a test of verbal comprehension that contains only mathematical equations would measure what it sets out to (Searle, 2003). However, there is disagreement as to how far this can be considered a type of validity. Vernon and Parry (1949) found in their well-known research of US army cook selection, that even though the high face validity of the test used which included recipes and method information, what was actually being measured was reading abilities and not cooking skills (Searle, 2003). For test-takers, face validity is imperative as they have made an effort in applying and trying to get the job role, therefore want to believe they have been assessed for something appropriate for the job they have applied for. A potential dilemma with this method lies with the fact that some test-takers may, bas ed on the appearance of the test, perceive their own idea of what is actually being assessed, and may in response distort themselves consequently. Content validity relates to the adequacy of coverage of a conceptual domain (Searle, 2003). It is frequently found in ability tests whereby a test-taker is asked to demonstrate their ability in a specific subject. Other than face validity, it is the only form of validity based on logical rather than statistical information (Searle, 2003). The fundamental concern is the sufficient coverage of the domain. As a result, this form of assessment is often constructed by a panel of experts to ensure sufficient breadth of coverage (Searle, 2003), which can result in two potential problems including content under-representation and construct-irrelevant variance. Cronbach and Meehl (1955) first established the concept of construct validity, when they suggested that underlying each test is a construct that is being assessed (Searle, 2003). Construct validation assumes that anything can be defined and measured. We cannot read someones intelligence metre, therefore a hypothetical construct defining what intelligence is has first to be created in order to measure it (Searle, 2003). There has been criticism of this as a basis for measurement within the human sciences. Stevens (1946) argued that the null hypothesis is hardly ever taken into account; kilne (1998) also critiques this measurement issue. A key concern of test-developers is to show the relationships between their instrument and other established tests which are assessing a similar domain. Criterion-related validity is the final form and is associated with what is being measured to an external criterion (Searle, 2003). It focuses on external measures, such as job success, establishing the relationship between the predictors (results from the selection methods used) and the criterion (performance on the job). The significant issue concerned with this form of validity is the adequacy of the identification and assessment of the external standard (Searle, 2003). Frequently the external measure is chosen for its convenience instead of its relation to the dimension to be assessed (Murphy, 2000) resulting in a possible difficulty. Criterion validity can be assessed in two distinct ways: Predictively or concurrently. The pure method (Bach, 2005) of establishing this relationship is to measure applicants during selection and based of methods used, predict future performance; predictive validity. Applicants are NOT CHOSEN on this basis, but either all or a cross-section (both good and bad predicted applicants) of applicants are taken on. After period on the job, performance is measured and correlation established between the selection method prediction and the job performance criterion measure. The AIM here is to avoid false negatives and positives (Bach, 2005). Practical difficulties with this process of validating selection methods arise, such as need to get results from fairly large number of individuals. A more obvious problem however, is the reluctance of decision makers to agree to employ individuals who are predicted to be poor performers. The CONCURRENT METHOD of validation is sometimes used to avoid this difficulty. The assumption is that existing employees demonstrate variable job performance. If a new selection method can discriminate between good or poor performers, then should be able to in same way between applicants. PROBLEMS motivation of current employees different to candidates, this may affect scores. Candidates likely to try harder. Current employees a restricted sample as have previously been selected by some method, so may on average be better than average candidate. Does not prove that the differences in team skills, as measured by the group exercise, were evident prior to employment. (might be that they werent learnt by employees as by-product of their work). When establishing the value of a test, the development of validity is central as it provides an indication of the strength of the relationship connecting the tool and a criterion (Searle, 2003). New statistical processes such as meta-analysis, (validity generalisation) pioneered by Schmidt and Hunter (1996, 1998, 1999), have revolutionised selection testing. They argued that although validity does differ by way of context and role, it is nonetheless moderately stable. Centred around this claim, selection tools could be moved across a variety of circumstances and roles and still maintain their extrapolative validity. The possibility of these tools being used rather than developing expensive bespoke instruments brought about the potential for huge savings for organisations. However, validity generalisation theory is not without its critics, and there are many underlying problems of this approach (Searle, 2003). Meta analysis is based on the collection and re-analysis of comparable stud ies of tools, such as the situational interview. The current application of meta-analysis studies, remove the possibilities for us to understand why situational differences emerge. They prevent us from identifying what makes a situation unique. Organisations currently operate in turbulent global environments, and evidence suggests that there are important relationships amongst task type, technology and the external environment that meta-analysis studies do not assist us in exploring. As a result of the meta-analysis dominance, selection designs cannot be improved to help organisations in these contexts. A test might produce a measure that is valid for one person, but the results may not be reproducible for another. This brings into question the issue of reliability. Reliability concerns the accuracy and consistency of a method (Bach, 2005). Increasingly, reliability is an issue which is becoming a legal requirement for selection tests yet, according to Bach, (2005) very few organisations systematically assess the reliability and validity of the selection methods they use. When psychometric tests are used, for example, there is a tendency to rely on the evidence presented in the test manual on reliability and validity based on meta-analysis research (Bach, 2005). Establishing the reliability of a selection tool involves three main elements: stability, consistency and equivalence of the results (Searle, 2003). Hermelin and Robertson, (2001) divided different selection methods into three categories (high, medium, low validity). High methods included structured interviews and cognitive ability tests. Medium included biographical data and unstructured interviews and integrity tests. Low included personality scales measuring the big five. Unfortunately evidence suggests that those methods with highest validity are not always the most popular. Rather most orgs rely on classic trio of short-listing, interviewing and references (Cook, 2003; Millmore 2003). Selection Methods Research into these initial selection stages is unbalanced, with far more work looking at the organisation-led application process, (in particular the role of biographical data) rather than the impact of applicants CV. (ALL SEARLE, 2003). The selection process typically begins with the candidate formally demonstrating their interest in the open job role. This is normally made by putting forward their CV or by completing an application form (Searle, 2003). This is commonly the first initial contact between potential employer and candidate, and as most applicants are selected out of the process at this stage, this implies that the CV, or resume, is a primary tool for the applicant in the selection process. Resumes also play an imperative role in the two-way selection process. For candidates, they represent an imperative chance to market themselves positively, and make an impression on the reader with their skills, knowledge and abilities (Searle, 2003). For the employer, they are the foundation on which short-listing decisions are made. The use of competency statements however, can potentially make a false impression. Bright and Hutton (2000) highlight that such statements are problematic to verify in a similar way that qualifications can be. Given its apparent significance however, the research regarding the validity and reliability of resumes to the selection process is modest. To congregate information in a standardised way, organisations may prefer applicants to complete a specific application form. Shackleton and Newell (1991) in their study, found that 93 percent of organisations in the UK used application forms. Now that technology has significantly advanced, many organisations in the UK, in particular those dealing with high volumes of applicants will use online application forms. In addition to gathering personal information they also make available information about candidates experiences. Within this area of selection practice is ahead of research, so although claims are made about the increased access to jobs, the new internet medium may-be overrated (Searle, 2003). However it does enable a more cost-effective short-listing process, (Polyhart et al 2003) but how far this is free from discrimination remains to be seen. Interviews Interviews are one of the oldest, yet most popular tools used in selection. Virtually all employers use interviews for all categories of staff (Bach, 2005). Interviews enable several important assessments to be made, and evidence by Robertson and Smith (2001) indicates that they have high predictive validity regarding future job and training performance. They offer an opportunity for a direct experience of a candidates behaviour coupled with the potential to ask more probing questions regarding underlying cognitive, motivational and emotional issues. Employers are however more aware of their limitations and being more careful by using variety of complementary selection techniques for some groups including graduates. There are two central theoretical perspectives that are taken regarding an interview: the objectivist psychometric perspective and the subjectivist social-interactionist perspective. The objective psychometric perspective places the interview at one extreme. It considers the interview an objective and accurate means of assessing an applicants suitability for a job. From this perspective, the process places the interviewee as a passive participant who provides relevant information about their experiences and capabilities. Thus this perspective reduces the interview to a verbally administered psychometric test which concerns of structure, reliability and validity predominating. First the interviewer is regarded as a rational decision-maker, who is capable of collecting in an impartial manner information on a number of relevant selection criteria. Implicit in such a process is the interviewers ability to obtain relevant data accurately. Second, it is assumed that they have the skills to be able to accurately interpret the information, relate it impartially to the criteria and assess the candidates suitability based on the sample of behaviour provided. This perspective tends to dominate in the field. Much of the research has examined how the validity and reliability of the process can be maintained. Inevitably the focus rests on the interviewer as a potential corrupter of an otherwise objective tool. The interviewers role in producing and perpetuating bias has been the main area of interest, and there has been limited effort until recently into questioning the candidates motivation to present the correct information, or in contaminating the interview. The alternative perspective, places the interview at the other extreme. It considers the process to be a social interaction in which a subjective, socially balanced negotiation occurs. In this perspective, a far more evenly balanced dynamic emerges between each party, both having the same power in the situation. The parties are considered to become participant observers in the process. The interview thus emerges as a complex and unique event. In the selection context, those involved are engaged in creating a variable psychological contract regarding their mutual expectations of future working relationships. The importance of the psychological contract at the onset and its maintenance throughout the employment relationship cannot be overstated (Rousseau, 2001). Herriot (1987) argued that this interactive and social perspective is important because it places the applicant as a far more active player in the negotiation process. This concept is particularly valid in a job market in which the applicants skills and experience are in short supply, or important to the organisation. Under these conditions, the applicant plays a key role in dictating the terms and conditions under which they will be employed. From this perspective, each interview is potentially unique because of the players involved, with the parties creating a particular process that emerges from their current context. The key research issues of this perspective are concerned with the type of psychological contract reached, bias and fairness. Like the objectivist perspective, this approach is also concerned with the future, but not regarding job performance, instead a focus might explore what happens if the contract being negotiated is violated. Structure The single issue that has received most attention in research on the interview is the amount of structure in an interview, ranging from unstructured to structured. Traditionally interviews classed as unstructured, generally consisted of a discussion between the applicant and recruiter with no pre-set topics. An early study by Kelly and Fiske, (1951) highlighted negative evidence suggesting there is little consistency or reliability in unstructured interviews. According to Bach, (2005) UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEWS are bad predictors because the information which is extracted is different for each individual and differs between interviewers and so comparisons between candidates cannot be made reliably. With different questions being asked of each candidate is almost inevitable that subjective biases makes the interview both unreliable and invalid. However, this form of interviewing provides, at its best, a surrogate measurement of the candidates social skills (Searle, 2003). The term struct ured interview can cover a wide range of processes. According to the objectivist perspective, the structured interview process focuses on the interviewer asking a pre-set sequence of questions aimed at eliciting information relating to pre-determined criteria. The purpose of the structure is to close the process to any extraneous influences, so that even when different interviewers are involved, the same data are being gathered, thereby providing a means of comparing the candidates. As a result, the process of delivering the questions is standardised. Research has shown, that increasing the structure of the interview significantly increases predictive validity and that organisations are responding by using more structured interview approaches (Taylor et al 2002). The subjectivist perspective however, instead regards the interview as a two-way process in which the actions of each party inform and shape the actions of the other. From this perspective, attention shifts towards understa nding the very process of the interview, which emerges as an ongoing exchange, informed and transformed by those involved. Typically the interview is the first time the interviewer meets with the applicant. The recruiters are presenting an image of the organisation in terms of its standards, values, expectations, ambitions and goals. The interview is therefore a public information exercise providing candidates with valuable data that will assist them in deciding whether to accept the job or not if offered it. While structured interviews can certainly be beneficial their usefulness will depend on the specific context. Where jobs are highly prescribed and knowledge about how work needs to be carried out, clarity about what constitutes good performance then structured interviews are better because prediction is possible and they are better predictors. HOWEVER when an organisation is competing in a turbulent environment and there is uncertainty about what is required of individuals a less structured approach may be more appropriate. OVERSTRUCTURING can be a problem, for EXAMPLE in an unstructured interview, the interviewer can provide more realistic information about the job, with the candidate able to ask questions which relate to his or her personal needs, values, interests, goals and abilities. Through this process, applicant and interviewer can negotiate a mutually agreeable psychological contract (CIPD, 2009). ALSO the unstructured interview can operate as preliminary socialisation tacti c with the applicant learning about the culture and values of the organisation (Dipboye 1997). Psychometric testing At the heart of psychometrics lies the assumption that people differ from one another, for instance in terms of friendliness, determination and ability to use mathematical concepts, and that these differences can be measured. It is assumed when measuring these different aspects, they relate to actual behaviour that is, they relate to an external event (a behaviour) to an internal cause (a trait). Psychometrics tests aim to qualify three key aspects of individual differences; ability, personality and related work, and suggest a relationship between these two and motivation. Essentially two types can be distinguished: COGNITIVE/ABILITY TESTS or PERSONALITY TESTS. COGNITIVE: assessment of individuals intellectual abilities either in terms of general intelligence or specific abilities. PERSONALITY: assessment of an individuals general disposition to behave in a certain way in certain situations (Bach, 2005). Cognitive tests The seminal piece of work on the use of cognitive tests in selection was undertaken by Hunter and Schmidt (1990) using meta-analysis, the researchers were able to demonstrate that although the many studies on the predictive validity of test appeared to be inconsistent, when adjustments were made for various factors, results were in fact consistent and proved that cognitive tests were valid predictors in a wide range of job situations. Such tests are simple to administer and score, albeit the person using such test needs to be properly trained. For most jobs the range of intelligence of those applying for the job is likely to be very restricted (rare to have a person with IQ 140 applying for caretaker job). The consequence of this is that a measure of cognitive ability may not differentiate much between the various candidates. Secondly, cognitive tests can be biased against certain groups. Eg it is well documented that black Americans tend to score lower than whites on tests of cognit ive ability, and women tend to score higher than men on verbal ability. This raises SOCIAL AND ETHICAL issues which need to be considered when selecting particular tests. Personality measures In most UK selection situations personality measures are of self report type. There is considerably more controversy over use of personality measures than cognitive tests. Some argue they are totally useless (Blinkhorn and Johnson 1990). Research has shown that personality measurement can be useful but only when specific personality constructs are linked to specific job competencies (tett et al, 1991; Robertson and Kinder 1993). Much of this work based on BIG FIVE Extroversion Neuroticism Conscientiousness Agreeableness Openness One problem with research on personality measurement has been that very different systems of personality description have been used, making it difficult to compare results. Now there is growing consensus around five-factor model of broad traits (Goldberg, 1993) and use of Costa and McCraes 1992 personality inventory which measures these five factors. Researchers have also explored the reasons for the links between personality traits and job performance. eg openness to experience appears to be related to training success (Cooper and Robertson, 1995). However, it is unlikely personality tests alone will be good predictors of future job behaviour BECAUSE job situations often present strong situational pressures which mean that differences between individuals behaviour are minimized. ALSO because it is highly unlikely that the same job can be done in very different but equally successful, ways by individuals with different personalities. This doesnt mean that personality measures have no place in selection process, but raises question of how such measures are best used within this context. Defining a personality profile and dismissing candidates who do not fit this profile is not good practice. HOWEVER obtaining measures of personality and using these as the basis of discussion during an interview can be helpful. Occupational testing occupational tests are measurement tools in world of work. The involve looking at a standard sample of behaviour that can be expressed as either a numerical scale or a category system (Cronbach, 1984). Test items are chosen specifically for their relevance to the domain of interest; for example percentage computation or word recognition. There is also an effort to standardise the delivery of the tools, ensuring that candidates have the same test experience so the only variable is their mental process. Tests used in an occupational context can be divided into two distinct groups: typical and maximal. These are based on the type of behaviour they are designed to measure. Typical behaviour tests the purpose of typical behaviour tests is to identify the direction of a persons interests and suggest types of jobs associated with these areas. Personality and interest-assessment tests used in career guidance are examples of typical behaviour instruments. However, it should be noted that they do not measure the level of skill that might be associated with this vocational choice. Maximal performance these tests are designed to assess maximal behaviour. They aim to find out what is the best the test-taker can do (Kline, 1998). Nonetheless, it has been argued that it is naive to make such a simplistic distinction between maximal and typical performance, as it artificially separates the measurement of affect and intellect and their combined relationship to performance (Goff and Ackerman, 1992). Measures concerned with maximal performance can be subdivided into three distinct types: attainment, aptitude and general intelligence. Psychological tests play an important role in selection practice. They offer organisations a means of discriminating between large numbers of applicants in a rapid and often cost effective manner. Moreover, their power in predicting successful subsequent job performance is amongst the highest of any selection tool (Robertson and Smith, 2001). Through the growth of instruments such as organisational-fit questionnaires, different attitudinal and trait assessment measures and novel ability tools, the range of psychometric tools available to organisations in increasing. Although there is an increasing use of psychometric tools in HR selection and recruitment decision making, the method is contentious. Ethnic group differences in intelligence test results reflect the ethnic divide that exists in the distribution of rewards and sanctions in our wider society (Gordon, 1997). Some argue that high intelligence quotient (IQ) scores are not important; rather, what is significant is the identification and means of assessing specific cognitive skills that are linked to job performance (Hunt, 1999). This latter group of more focused cognitive assessment tools can have a significant impact in organisations, revealing how close an applicant is to the requisite skills level estimating how much training an applicant needs to reach an acceptable standard. Psychometric tests will always be open to abuse as they offer a potential means of legitimising discrimination by those in power and authority. Underlying issues of test production and assumptions that underpin psychometrics reveal how social values and prejudice can have an impact on the development, application, analysis and interpretation of results. Whilst some may feel comfortable to reduce the value of human beings to an empirical value, there are others who see humans in terms of their potential, regardless of the social context they find themselves in. A critical issue underlying any test is the definition of the domain. Often tests are devised on an atheoretical basis, or they use the same term to mean different things. It is important that test-users require adequate conceptual rationale for a test. Concept validity is key here; nevertheless, it is often weakly developed or ignored. Without attention to this core issue, psychometrics will fail to offer any meaningful assessment and instead intelligence will be what intelligence tests measure, not what intelligence actually is. Assessment centres (Bach, 2005). Not a single selection method nor a place. Refers to utilisation of a number of different selection methods over a specified period in order for multiple assessors to assess many candidates on a range of identified competencies or behavioural dimensions. Core element is the simulation of actual work tasks in order to observe job-related behaviours (Cooper and Robertson 1995). Managerial jobs: in-tray exercises group decision making exercises = common. Intray: provides candidate with a range of correspondence (memos, letter, reports) and he/she required to make decisions in order to prioritise/deal with various problems in the material under tight schedule. Used to assess individuals planning/problem solving abilities. Group decision making exercise: small groups discuss particular problem, come to consensus/solve problem. Problem solving abilities may be assessed, but also interpersonal and leadership skills. Increasing evidence of their limitations. Jones et al (1991) concluded despite the validity of different components of an AC, overall AC validity was surprisingly low. KEY PROBLEM appears to be that managers, acting as assessors, are not able to accurately assess cross-situational abilities from the different exercises. So while managers are required to rate candidates on diff. Competencies for each exercise, these ratings appear to be defined by overall task performance of the candidate on the particular exercise, rather than specific behaviours demonstrated in activity (Iles, 1992). No. Of studies have demonstrated low correlation between the overall assessment ratings and the variety of the criterion measures of on-the-job performance (Payne et al 1992). Despite negative evidence, two important points to be made: Designing and developing an AC has potential to improve the validty of selection, but simply putting together series of exercises and running them over two days using group of untrained assessors does not guarantee that decisions will be improved. EXAMPLE: gaugler et al 1987 validity of ACs improved when larger no. Of exercises used, and psychologists instead of managers acted as assessors. When peer evaluation included as part of assessment process and when group of assessors cantained larger proportion of women. Many probs identified with ACs need to be looked at from broader perspective than simply criterion-related validity. KEY BENEFIT of using AC is it gives potential to recruit an extended opportunity to find out more about the org. In particular many of the activities are simulations of the kind of work involved. MUTUALLY BENEFICIAL negotiation can take place if both parties know more about each other. THIS REQUIRES adoption of EXCHANGE rather than psychometric view of recruitment and selection process. Recruitment and selection: Limitations of the psychometric approach As noted earlier, adopting a more systematic approach to recruitment and selection to reduce bias and errors is useful. Yet ironically, it could be argued that globalisation and organisational requirements of flexibility, innovation and commitment make the best practices somewhat problematic and suggest a need for an entirely new perspective on RS. FIRST considering degree of change, orgs now require generalists rather than specialists to take on variety of different roles which require range of skills/competencies. Even when individual recruited for specific position, highly likely job role will change. Therefore, best practice prescription of doing a thorough job analysis to identify the task and the person requirements of the particular job may be difficult or inappropriate. There is not a fixed jigsaw hole to fill. SECONDLY alongside flexibility is need for innovation. Identifying opportunities for change and designing creative solutions is crucial for the survival of many orgs. It is about encouraging people to think differently. Following best practice guidelines leads to selection on basis of whether candidates can do particular jobs efficiently and whether they fit org culture. Rather than encourage innovation, traditional selection approaches may stifle creativity. THIRDLY, orgs operating on global rather than national level. Considering array of cross-national differences it is unlikely that orgs will be effective if they simply try to replicate their home-base operation abroad (Bartlett and Ghoshal 1989). To manage this diversity requires RS of people from different backgrounds with different experiences at all org levels. HOWEVER job analysis is backward looking. EXAMPLE if current job holders are all of same race/nationality, this may mean individuals from different backgrounds will be excluded because they do not fit the existing profile of a competent employee. ALSO during selection, different background candidates may respond differently so that they are at a disadvantage, again reducing their chances of being selected (SHack

Macbeth: Corruption :: Macbeth essays

Macbeth: Corruption When people come into a postion of power where the definition of control becomes a new definition according to their point of view, they unleash a feeling in their minds that what ever decision they make that directly conflicts the lives of other people, they don't feel responsible. That's when npower corrupts the minds of people. People in power feel that they can do anything when their in power for a long period of time. Corruption is something that is motivated by greed and deception. It's a very sinister personality that controls and destroys people's live and makes them the kind of person other people don't want to associate with. When a person is in power, some situations occur when they can acquire anything, lying, bribing, coning, or stealing. With these in mind anybody in power could become a powerful foe. The reason why corruption has become a problem is because it's fair to become greedy for more. And soon it gets out of control and now you have a corrupted person who in order to change would have to step out of power and become a person who doesn't control. Nothing can really be done to sustain it or avoid it, if you take a corrupt person in power and replace a fair and just person. Sooner or later they also become corrupt. You just have to assume and hope the replacement will be a fair person. In the tradgity "Macbeth" there are many examples of corruption. When Macbeth became Thane of Cowdor his wife, Lady Macbeth, was very delighted to hear of such news. And when hearing that Duncan, the king ,would be coming to dinner at their castle, gave her an idea that maybe they need a new king, Macbeth! This is a perfect example of corruption, as soon as she became more powerful, she was lusting for more. As play carries on the corruption becomes greater with the killing of Banquo. Banquo who was a friend of Macbeth is betrayed when Macbeth, the new king, orders him to be killed only because Banquo has a son named Fleance that Macbeth stupidly believes will take the throne away from him,"To make them kings, the seeds of Banquo kings!" This of course get the people suspicious, but now it's to late, Macbeth had gone crazy as well as Lady Macbeth. Of course then when your in power sometimes you think nothing will happen that will hurt you in any way, that your safe in the confinment of your office or room. Of course this never works and theres always some terrible thing bound to